1: Introduction and Background - Biology

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1: Introduction and Background

Umuc Biology 102/103 Lab 1: Introduction to Science

Abstract
From intellectuals to policy-makers alike. All of the extraordinary output on the subject of al-Qaeda, has recently led to a number of far-reaching theories about the group which remain startlingly unexplored. The two assumptions, this paper examines and reveals each one's foundational role in assertions as well as debates about al-Qaeda, despite the relatively unexplored status of each. These 2 assumptions relate to: (1) the role of the internet in actual terrorist activity and (2) the association between combating a global “Al-Qaeda and combating al-Qaeda in Iraq”.

Mueller's ever-burgeoning bookish literature which anyone familiar with terrorism would recognize, quickly titled the 'Six rather unusual propositions about terrorism'. Is what my research paper plays off. In 2005, Mueller's astute and incisive piece brought to the forefront six unfamiliar assumptions about terrorism that should already have spawned discussion among intellectuals in the field, but had not, until his work provocatively presented those propositions. In a similar stratum, this research paper focuses on 2 rather unfamiliar theories about al-Qaeda which I think demand far greater research, attention, and debate than Mueller's had received thus far. It is my intention to focus these reflections on some insufficiently explored theories regarding particularly al-Qaeda. However, most of the theories relate more broadly to terrorism concerning issues in general. What is meant here by the phrase ' moderately unfamiliar assumptions '? By ' unfamiliar ', this dialogue proposes that the thinking explored here prowl beneath many of the affirmations made by intellectuals on al-Qaeda. This coupled with getting beneath many of the affirmations frequently put forward by political types (politicians and policy-makers). Humbly, this is not to imply that these particular assumptions are shared universally: in fact, many of the theories are really opposing pairs of, dichotomous conjectures, with those partisan to one side of a certain debate embracing that conjecture while their opponents reciprocate the other. Centrally the point is that these outright and crucial foundational notions concerning al-Qaeda, are for many assertions made by those addressing key issues and debating in the field.

By ' assumptions ', these reflections suggest that Mueller's six assumptions have been given inadequate attention in terrorism scholarship and dialogue. Not saying that these assumptions have been converted into the bases for other claims because they have been considered so obviously true and were taken for granted, or so indispensable research as to be automatically accepted for any scholarship whatsoever to continue. Contrarily, these assumptions engross some complex, consequential matters. This being said too often they have been accepted and neglected in favor of important research in other directions. What I hope to achieve with this paper is to draw attention to them, and in doing so, persuade their investigation through due diligent research and in depth analyses. Far too often these assumptions have not been totally ignored, but they have been left moderately unexplored. In addition, they also have been taken as the basis for other claims and assertions. For this reason, this research paper investigates 2 of the six assumptions, in an attempt to reveal what is habitually taken for granted in many conversations about al-Qaeda. This coupled with the consequent penalty for assertions made about counterterrorism and terrorism. In addition, proposals for how each assumption could be explored more completely and systematically are offered. This research paper then concludes by making a note of social science, and that it may.

Writing an Introduction for a Scientific Paper

This section provides guidelines on how to construct a solid introduction to a scientific paper including background information, study question, biological rationale, hypothesis, and general approach. If the Introduction is done well, there should be no question in the reader’s mind why and on what basis you have posed a specific hypothesis.

Broad Question: based on an initial observation (e.g., “I see a lot of guppies close to the shore. Do guppies like living in shallow water?”). This observation of the natural world may inspire you to investigate background literature or your observation could be based on previous research by others or your own pilot study. Broad questions are not always included in your written text, but are essential for establishing the direction of your research.

Background Information: key issues, concepts, terminology, and definitions needed to understand the biological rationale for the experiment. It often includes a summary of findings from previous, relevant studies. Remember to cite references, be concise, and only include relevant information given your audience and your experimental design. Concisely summarized background information leads to the identification of specific scientific knowledge gaps that still exist. (e.g., “No studies to date have examined whether guppies do indeed spend more time in shallow water.”)

Testable Question: these questions are much more focused than the initial broad question, are specific to the knowledge gap identified, and can be addressed with data. (e.g., “Do guppies spend different amounts of time in water <1 meter deep as compared to their time in water that is >1 meter deep?”)

Biological Rationale: describes the purpose of your experiment distilling what is known and what is not known that defines the knowledge gap that you are addressing. The “BR” provides the logic for your hypothesis and experimental approach, describing the biological mechanism and assumptions that explain why your hypothesis should be true.

The biological rationale is based on your interpretation of the scientific literature, your personal observations, and the underlying assumptions you are making about how you think the system works. If you have written your biological rationale, your reader should see your hypothesis in your introduction section and say to themselves, “Of course, this hypothesis seems very logical based on the rationale presented.”

A thorough rationale defines your assumptions about the system that have not been revealed in scientific literature or from previous systematic observation. These assumptions drive the direction of your specific hypothesis or general predictions.
Defining the rationale is probably the most critical task for a writer, as it tells your reader why your research is biologically meaningful. It may help to think about the rationale as an answer to the questions—how is this investigation related to what we know, what assumptions am I making about what we don’t yet know, AND how will this experiment add to our knowledge? *There may or may not be broader implications for your study be careful not to overstate these (see note on social justifications below).
Expect to spend time and mental effort on this. You may have to do considerable digging into the scientific literature to define how your experiment fits into what is already known and why it is relevant to pursue.
Be open to the possibility that as you work with and think about your data, you may develop a deeper, more accurate understanding of the experimental system. You may find the original rationale needs to be revised to reflect your new, more sophisticated understanding.
As you progress through Biocore and upper level biology courses, your rationale should become more focused and matched with the level of studye., cellular, biochemical, or physiological mechanisms that underlie the rationale. Achieving this type of understanding takes effort, but it will lead to better communication of your science.

***Special note on avoiding social justifications: You should not overemphasize the relevance of your experiment and the possible connections to large-scale processes. Be realistic and logical—do not overgeneralize or state grand implications that are not sensible given the structure of your experimental system. Not all science is easily applied to improving the human condition. Performing an investigation just for the sake of adding to our scientific knowledge (“pure or basic science”) is just as important as applied science. In fact, basic science often provides the foundation for applied studies.

Hypothesis / Predictions: specific prediction(s) that you will test during your experiment. For manipulative experiments, the hypothesis should include the independent variable (what you manipulate), the dependent variable(s) (what you measure), the organism or system, the direction of your results, and comparison to be made.

Hypothesis that Needs Work

(manipulative experiment)

Better Hypothesis

(manipulative experiment)

We hypothesized that Daphnia magna reared in warm water will have a greater sexual mating response.

(The dependent variable “sexual response” has not been defined enough to be able to make this hypothesis testable or falsifiable. In addition, no comparison has been specified— greater sexual mating response as compared to what?)

We hypothesized that Daphnia magna (STUDY ORGANISM) reared in warm water temperatures ranging from 25-28 °C (IND. VAR.) would produce greater (direction) numbers of male offspring and females carrying haploid egg sacs (DEPEND. VAR.) than D. magna reared in cooler water temperatures of 18-22°C.

If you are doing a systematic observation, your hypothesis presents a variable or set of variables that you predict are important for helping you characterize the system as a whole, or predict differences between components/areas of the system that help you explain how the system functions or changes over time.

Hypothesis that Needs Work

(systematic observation)

Better Hypothesis

(systematic observation)

We hypothesize that the frequency and extent of algal blooms in Lake Mendota over the last 10 years causes fish kills and imposes a human health risk.

(The variables “frequency and extent of algal blooms,” “fish kills” and “human health risk” have not been defined enough to be able to make this hypothesis testable or falsifiable. How do you measure algal blooms? Although implied, hypothesis should express predicted direction of expected results [e.g., higher frequency associated with greater kills]. Note that cause and effect cannot be implied without a controlled, manipulative experiment.)

We hypothesize that increasing (DIRECTION) cell densities of algae (VAR.) in Lake Mendota over the last 10 years is correlated with 1. increased numbers of dead fish (VAR.) washed up on Madison beaches and 2. increased numbers of reported hospital/clinical visits (VAR.) following full-body exposure to lake water.

Experimental Approach: Briefly gives the reader a general sense of the experiment, the type of data it will yield, and the kind of conclusions you expect to obtain from the data. Do not confuse the experimental approach with the experimental protocol. The experimental protocol consists of the detailed step-by-step procedures and techniques used during the experiment that are to be reported in the Methods and Materials section.

Some Final Tips on Writing an Introduction

As you progress through the Biocore sequence, for instance, from organismal level of Biocore 301/302 to the cellular level in Biocore 303/304, we expect the contents of your “Introduction” paragraphs to reflect the level of your coursework and previous writing experience. For example, in Biocore 304 (Cell Biology Lab) biological rationale should draw upon assumptions we are making about cellular and biochemical processes.
Be Concise yet Specific: Remember to be concise and only include relevant information given your audience and your experimental design. As you write, keep asking, “Is this necessary information or is this irrelevant detail?” For example, if you are writing a paper claiming that a certain compound is a competitive inhibitor to the enzyme alkaline phosphatase and acts by binding to the active site, you need to explain (briefly) Michaelis-Menton kinetics and the meaning and significance of Km and Vmax. This explanation is not necessary if you are reporting the dependence of enzyme activity on pH because you do not need to measure Km and Vmax to get an estimate of enzyme activity.
Another example: if you are writing a paper reporting an increase in Daphnia magna heart rate upon exposure to caffeine you need not describe the reproductive cycle of magna unless it is germane to your results and discussion. Be specific and concrete, especially when making introductory or summary statements.

Where Do You Discuss Pilot Studies?
Many times it is important to do pilot studies to help you get familiar with your experimental system or to improve your experimental design. If your pilot study influences your biological rationale or hypothesis, you need to describe it in your Introduction. If your pilot study simply informs the logistics or techniques, but does not influence your rationale, then the description of your pilot study belongs in the Materials and Methods section.

Introduction That Needs Work from an Intro Ecology Lab:

Researchers studying global warming predict an increase in average global temperature of 1.3°C in the next 10 years (Seetwo 2003). (background info) Daphnia magna are small zooplankton that live in freshwater inland lakes. They are filter-feeding crustaceans with a transparent exoskeleton that allows easy observation of heart rate and digestive function. Thomas et al (2001) found that Daphnia heart rate increases significantly in higher water temperatures. (background info., not relevant or necessary) Daphnia are also thought to switch their mode of reproduction from asexual to sexual in response to extreme temperatures. (unreferenced background info) Gender is not mediated by genetics, but by the environment. Therefore, D. magna reproduction may be sensitive to increased temperatures resulting from global warming (maybe a question?) and may serve as a good environmental indicator for global climate change. (The latter part of this last sentence is an overzealous social justification for the experiment.)

In this experiment we hypothesized that D. magna reared in warm water will switch from an asexual to a sexual mode of reproduction. (hypothesis) In order to prove this hypothesis correct we observed Daphnia grown in warm and cold water and counted the number of males observed after 10 days. (approach)

· Good to recognize D. magna as a model organism from which some general conclusions can be made about the quality of the environment however no attempt is made to connect increased lake temperatures and D. magna gender. Link early on to increase focus.

· Connection to global warming is too far-reaching. First sentence gives impression that Global Warming is topic for this paper. Changes associated with global warming are not well known and therefore little can be concluded about use of D. magna as indicator species.

· Information about heart rate is unnecessary because heart rate in not being tested in this experiment.

· Rationale is missing how is this study related to what we know about D. magna survivorship and reproduction as related to water temperature, and how will this experiment contribute to our knowledge of the system?

· Think about the ecosystem in which this organism lives and the context. Under what conditions would D. magna be in a body of water with elevated temperatures?

· Not falsifiable variables need to be better defined (state temperatures or range tested rather than “warm” or “cold”) and predict direction and magnitude of change in number of males after 10 days.

· It is unclear what comparison will be made or what the control is

· What dependent variable will be measured to determine “switch” in mode of reproduction (what criteria are definitive for switch?)

· Hypotheses cannot be “proven” correct. They are either supported or rejected.

Better Introduction
from an Intro Ecology Lab:

Daphnia magna are small zooplankton found in freshwater inland lakes and are thought to switch their mode of reproduction from asexual to sexual in response to extreme temperatures (Mitchell 1999). Lakes containing D. magna have an average summer surface temperature of 20°C (Harper 1995) but may increase by more than 15% when expose to warm water effluent from power plants, paper mills, and chemical industry (Baker et al. 2000). (background info) Could an increase in lake temperature caused by industrial thermal pollution affect the survivorship and reproduction of D. magna? (study question)

The sex of D. magna is mediated by the environment rather than genetics. Under optimal environmental conditions, D. magna populations consist of asexually reproducing females. When the environment shifts D. magna may be queued to reproduce sexually resulting in the production of male offspring and females carrying haploid eggs in sacs called ephippia (definition) (Mitchell 1999). (background info)

The purpose of this laboratory study is to examine the effects of increased water temperature on D. magna survivorship and reproduction. This study will help us characterize the magnitude of environmental change required to induce the onset of the sexual life cycle in D. magna. (biological rationale) Because D. magna are known to be a sensitive environmental indicator species (Baker et al. 2000) and share similar structural and physiological features with many aquatic species, they serve as a good model for examining the effects of increasing water temperature on reproduction in a variety of aquatic invertebrates. (biological rationale)

We hypothesized that D. magna (study organism) populations reared in water temperatures ranging from 24-26 °C (indep. Var) would have lower survivorship, higher [direction] male/female ratio among the offspring, and more female offspring carrying ephippia (depend. var) as compared with D. magna grown in water temperatures of 20-22°C. (hypothesis) To test this hypothesis we reared D. magna populations in tanks containing water at either 24 +/- 2°C or 20 +/- 2°C. Over 10 days, we monitored survivorship, determined the sex of the offspring, and counted the number of female offspring containing ephippia. (approach)

· Opening paragraph provides good focus immediately. The study organism, gender switching response, and temperature influence are mentioned in the first sentence. Although it does a good job documenting average lake water temperature and changes due to industrial run-off, it fails to make an argument that the 15% increase in lake temperature could be considered “extreme” temperature change.

· The study question is nicely embedded within relevant, well-cited background information. Alternatively, it could be stated as the first sentence in the introduction, or after all background information has been discussed before the hypothesis.

· Good. Well-defined purpose for study to examine the degree of environmental change necessary to induce the Daphnia sexual life
cycle.

How will introductions be evaluated? The following is part of the rubric we will be using to evaluate your papers.

Introduction

When entering a gate of a magnificent city we can make a prediction about the splendor, pomposity, history, and civilization we will encounter in the city. Occasionally, gates do not give even a glimpse of the city, and it can mislead the visitors about inner sections of the city. Introduction sections of the articles are like gates of a city. It is a presentation aiming at introducing itself to the readers, and attracting their attention. Attractiveness, clarity, piquancy, and analytical capacity of the presentation will urge the reader to read the subsequent sections of the article. On the other hand as is understood from the motto of antique Greek poet Euripides 𠇊 bad beginning makes a bad ending”, ‘Introduction’ section of a scientific article is important in that it can reveal the conclusion of the article. [1]

It is useful to analyze the issues to be considered in the ‘Introduction’ section under 3 headings. Firstly, information should be provided about the general topic of the article in the light of the current literature which paves the way for the disclosure of the objective of the manuscript. Then the specific subject matter, and the issue to be focused on should be dealt with, the problem should be brought forth, and fundamental references related to the topic should be discussed. Finally, our recommendations for solution should be described, in other words our aim should be communicated. When these steps are followed in that order, the reader can track the problem, and its solution from his/her own perspective under the light of current literature. Otherwise, even a perfect study presented in a non-systematized, confused design will lose the chance of reading. Indeed inadequate information, inability to clarify the problem, and sometimes concealing the solution will keep the reader who has a desire to attain new information away from reading the manuscript. [1𠄳]

First of all, explanation of the topic in the light of the current literature should be made in clear, and precise terms as if the reader is completely ignorant of the subject. In this section, establishment of a warm rapport between the reader, and the manuscript is aimed. Since frantic plunging into the problem or the solution will push the reader into the dilemma of either screening the literature about the subject matter or refraining from reading the article. Updated, and robust information should be presented in the ‘Introduction’ section.

Then main topic of our manuscript, and the encountered problem should be analyzed in the light of the current literature following a short instance of brain exercise. At this point the problems should be reduced to one issue as far as possible. Of course, there might be more than one problem, however this new issue, and its solution should be the subject matter of another article. Problems should be expressed clearly. If targets are more numerous, and complex, solutions will be more than one, and confusing.

Finally, the last paragraphs of the ‘Introduction’ section should include the solution in which we will describe the information we generated, and related data. Our sentences which arouse curiosity in the readers should not be left unanswered. The reader who thinks to obtain the most effective information in no time while reading a scientific article should not be smothered with mysterious sentences, and word plays, and the readers should not be left alone to arrive at a conclusion by themselves. If we have contrary expectations, then we might write an article which won’t have any reader. A clearly expressed or recommended solutions to an explicitly revealed problem is also very important for the integrity of the ‘Introduction’ section. [1𠄵]

We can summarize our arguments with the following example ( Figure 1 ). The introduction section of the exemplary article is written in simple present tense which includes abbreviations, acronyms, and their explanations. Based on our statements above we can divide the introduction section into 3 parts. In the first paragraph, miniaturization, and evolvement of pediatric endourological instruments, and competitions among PNL, ESWL, and URS in the treatment of urinary system stone disease are described, in other words the background is prepared. In the second paragraph, a newly defined system which facilitates intrarenal access in PNL procedure has been described. Besides basic references related to the subject matter have been given, and their outcomes have been indicated. In other words, fundamental references concerning main subject have been discussed. In the last paragraph the aim of the researchers to investigate the outcomes, and safety of the application of this new method in the light of current information has been indicated.

Nutraceuticals: Introduction, Classification and Legal Aspects | Biology

In this article we will discuss about:- 1. Introduction to Nutraceuticals 2. Classification of Nutraceuticals 3. Current Status and Legal Aspects.

Introduction to Nutraceuticals:

Major scientific and engineering advances in recent decades have led to an increase in the development of expensive, high-technology medical and surgical procedures and drug therapies. At the same time, however, there has been an increase in the number of people turning to alternative medical therapies, which emphasize the importance of a ‘good diet’ in maintaining and restoring health.

The term “nutraceutical” was coined from “nutrition” and “pharmaceutical” in 1989, by Stephen DeFelice, MD, founder and chairman of the Foundation for Innovation in Medicine.

A nutraceutical can be defined as “any substance that may be considered a food or part of a food and provides medical or health benefits, including the prevention and treatment of disease. Such products may range from isolated nutrients, dietary supplements and diets to genetically engineered ‘designer’ foods, herbal products and processed foods such as cereals, soups and beverages.” Such foods are commonly referred to as functional foods, signifying that these foods and/or their components may provide a health benefit that goes beyond basic nutrition.

At present, there are no universally accepted definitions for nutraceuticals and functional foods, although commonality clearly exists between the definitions offered by different health-oriented professional organizations. According to the American Dietetic Association, the term “functional” implies that the food has some identified value leading to health benefits, including reduced risk of disease, for the person consuming it.

Functional foods include everything from natural foods, such as fruits and vegetables endowed with antioxidants and fibre, to fortified and enriched foods, such as orange juice with added calcium or additional carotenoids, to formulated ready-to-drink beverages containing antioxidants and immune-supporting factors. The Nutrition Business Journal states that it uses the term, nutraceutical, for anything that is consumed primarily or particularly for health reasons. Based on that definition, a functional food would be a kind of nutraceutical.

On the other hand, Health Canada states that a nutraceutical is a product that is “prepared from foods, but sold in the form of pills or powders (potions), or in other medicinal forms not usually associated with foods. A nutraceutical is demonstrated to have a physiological benefit or provide protection against chronic disease.”

Classification of Nutraceuticals:

Nutraceuticals can be classified on the basis of food source (Table 13.1), mechanism of action (Table 13.2), and chemical nature (Table 13.3).

Current Status and Legal Aspects of Nutraceuticals:

The nutraceutical industry has emerged as an important part of the food industry. With high economic growth, increasing income and changing lifestyles, the market is growing enormously. Globally, the nutraceutical market was placed at 65 billion dollars in 2002 and was expected to grow to 250 billion dollars by 2005. In India, this market is at about Rs. 1, 600 crore at present, with an annual growth rate of 25%.

In developed countries, predictable factors have been largely responsible for encouraging the growth of the nutraceutical industry. High disposable incomes, changing lifestyles with unhealthy eating habits, increasing incidence of health problems, an increasingly larger aging populations with unique dietary needs to maintain health, etc., have all prompted the development of new nutritional solutions, especially the use of nutraceuticals.

Therefore, there is a significant correlation between the growth of nutritional ingredients and demographic issues and confidence in the growth of nutraceutical products over the next 20 years.

Although this industry is also expanding in developing countries, it is difficult to predict its growth rate. Some of the reasons for this are – high population, disparity in levels of disposable income, spectrum of malnutrition including over- and under-nutrition etc. Notwithstanding the above, the Indian nutraceutical industry also has great prospects.

Over the last decade, a wide range of products have been available, giving an insight into the potential for tremendous growth. On the one hand, a booming economy has resulted in an overall increase in disposable incomes. Added to this, unhealthy eating habits coupled with a sedentary lifestyle have led to increased incidence of diet and related health issues.

On the other hand, there is growing awareness on the importance of nutrition and diet for long-term good health. These have contributed to favourable market conditions for the nutraceutical industry in India. Apart from this, India has other advantages like well-qualified and intelligent human resources for setting up R&D facilities of international standards.

The country is also a cost-effective source of sophisticated raw materials, due to technological advances in areas like fermentation processes, plant extraction and chemical synthesis. These converging economic and demographic trends in India have laid the groundwork for opportunities in the nutraceutical industry.

While prospects are high for this industry, India faces certain challenges too. The supply chain is a long one and is further affected by poor infrastructure in terms of roads, cold chain facilities and storage conditions. The wastage of fresh food is as high as 50% due to lack of infrastructure facilities.

Despite surplus food, the productivity of agricultural/horticultural crops is very low and the land-holding pattern is fragmented. In addition to this, the taxes levied on packaged and branded foods are very high – about 30% in India. In comparison, the taxes in EU countries are below 10% and even in other Asian countries like China, it is only 13%. All these disadvantages hinder India from gaining a competitive edge in the global market.

The regulatory framework in India also needs the attention of the relevant authorities. Globally, the regulatory authorities are aware of the changing needs of consumers and proactively protect consumers by amending existing laws to accommodate changes. NLEA (Nutrition Labelling and Education Act) of 1990 and DSHEA (Dietary Supplement and Health Education Act of 1994 are fine examples of this in the USA.

Similarly, the FOSHU Act (Foods of special Health Uses) was introduced in Japan much earlier. But the scenario in India is very different. Old laws such as the Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954, which regulates packaged foods, still exist.

In addition, manufacturers need to abide by many other cumbersome laws [Fruit Products Order, 1955 (FPO) Vegetable Oils Products (Regulation) Order, 1998 (VOP) Agricultural Produce (Grading and Marking) Act, 1937 (as amended up to 1986) and General Grading and Marking Rules, 1986 and 1988 (AGMARK)].

In India, there is lack of clarity in classifying items into functional foods and nutraceuticals. This causes confusion among the regulators. At times, the drug regulators are tempted to classify these products as drugs. This has resulted in trouble for genuine manufacturers. Proper legislation is the need of the hour.

The Government of India has taken certain welcome steps like the amendment of the PFA (Prevention of Food Adulteration Act) which defines “Food for special dietary uses”. Another revolutionary step that is being planned is to introduce a Food Safety and Standards Act. This will replace the old PFA with new legislation. The new Act will take India on to the path of a new regulatory framework to make it capable of taking on global competition.

1: Introduction and Background - Biology

LITERATURE REVIEW PAPER

WHAT IS A REVIEW PAPER?

The purpose of a review paper is to succinctly review recent progress in a particular topic. Overall, the paper summarizes the current state of knowledge of the topic. It creates an understanding of the topic for the reader by discussing the findings presented in recent research papers.

A review paper is not a "term paper" or book report. It is not merely a report on some references you found. Instead, a review paper synthesizes the results from several primary literature papers to produce a coherent argument about a topic or focused description of a field.

Examples of scientific reviews can be found in:

Scientific American

Science in the "Perspectives" and "Reviews" sections

Nature in the "News and Views" section

Compilations of reviews such as:

Current Opinion in Cell Biology

Current Opinion in Genetics & Development

Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology

Annual Review of Physiology

Trends in Ecology & Evolution

You should read articles from one or more of these sources to get examples of how your paper should be organized.

Scientists commonly use reviews to communicate with each other and the general public. There are a wide variety of review styles from ones aimed at a general audience (e.g., Scientific American) to those directed at biologists within a particular subdiscipline (e.g., Annual Review of Physiology).

A key aspect of a review paper is that it provides the evidence for a particular point of view in a field. Thus, a large focus of your paper should be a description of the data that support or refute that point of view. In addition, you should inform the reader of the experimental techniques that were used to generate the data.

The emphasis of a review paper is interpreting the primary literature on the subject. You need to read several original research articles on the same topic and make your own conclusions about the meanings of those papers.

Click here for advice on choosing a topic.

Click here for advice on doing research on your topic.

HOW TO WRITE THE PAPER

Overview of the Paper:

Your paper should consist of four general sections:

Introduction
The body of the paper
Conclusion and future directions
Literature cited

Review articles contain neither a materials and methods section nor an abstract.

Use topic headings. Do not use a topic heading that reads, "Body of the paper." Instead the topic headings should refer to the actual concepts or ideas covered in that section.

What Goes into Each Section:

Experimental Evidence: Describe important results from recent primary literature articles and
Explain how those results shape our current understanding of the topic.
Mention the types of experiments done and their corresponding data, but do not repeat the experimental procedure step for step. Examples
Point out and address any controversies in the field.
Use figures and/or tables to present your own synthesis of the original data or to show key data taken directly from the original papers.

Succinctly summarize your major points.
Point out the significance of these results.
Discuss the questions that remain in the area.
Keep it brief.

Your instructor will give you a minimum number of references that you must use and cite in your paper. Typically, at least 8-10 references are required.
Click here for how to handle citing sources.

1: Introduction and Background - Biology

Recorded: January 6, 2014

Lecture 1: Introduction

Course Description: This course is intended for both mathematics and biology undergrads with a basic mathematics background, and consists of an introduction to modeling biological problems using continuous ODE methods (rather than discrete methods as used in 113A). We describe the basic qualitative behavior of dynamical systems in the context of a simple population model and, as time allows, introduce other types of models such as chemical reactions inside the cell or excitable systems leading to oscillations and neuronal signals. Certain topics from linear algebra that are needed for this course are presented as well, so a linear algebra prerequisite is not necessary.

Required attribution: Enciso, German A. Math 113B (UCI Open: University of California, Irvine), http://open.uci.edu/courses/math_113b_intro_to_mathematical_modeling_in_biology.html. [Access date]. License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 United States License.

Math 113B. Lec. 01. Intro to Mathematical Modeling in Biology: Introduction to the Course by German Andres Enciso Ruiz is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License.

Biology Final Year Project Research Topics

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